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You are here:  HOME  >  Research Programs  >  Radiation Countermeasures
Radiation Countermeasures
JUMP TO:  Strategic plan | Summary | Background | Previous work at AFRRI | Recent accomplishments: Dual-use countermeasures | Cell therapies | Nutraceuticals | Cytokines & growth factors | Animal models | Mechanisms | Enzyme mimetics & inhibitors | Hematopoietic microenvironment mechanisms | Ex-RAD® | 5-AED |Toll-like receptor agonists | Radioprotective thiols | Countermeasure efficacy | Guidance & reviews 
Overview
Program advisor: Mark H. Whitnall, PhD
 
Associated principal investigators: Sanchita P. Ghosh, PhD; Michael R. Landauer, PhD; Alexandra C. Miller, PhD; Vijay K. Singh, PhD; Venkataraman Srinivasan, PhD; Mang Xiao, MD
 
Associated investigators: Lynnette H. Cary, PhD; Kushal Chakraborty, PhD; Dadin Fu, PhD; Cam T. Ha, PhD; Shilpa S. Kulkarni, PhD; Xiang Hong Li, MS; Maria Moroni, PhD; Merriline Satyamitra, PhD; Pankaj K. Singh, PhD
     
Mission: To develop pharmacological countermeasures to radiation injury that can be used by military personnel and emergency responders.
Strategic plan
  1. Develop a better understanding of the biology of radiation injury and radiation countermeasure drugs.
  2. Use knowledge of processes involved in radiation injury and countermeasures to identify and assess novel drug candidates.
  3. Collaborate proactively with other research institutions, pharmaceutical firms, and government agencies to develop and obtain approval for radiation countermeasures for use in the field and the clinic.
Summary
  1. Four radiation countermeasures for the Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) have US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Investigational New Drug (IND) status, meaning they can be tested for safety in humans.
  2. These are 5-androstenediol (5-AED, Neumune), genistein (BIO300), Ex-Rad® and CBLB502.
  3. One, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF, Neupogen®), has Emergency Use IND status.
  4. AFRRI has been involved in the development all five agents.
  5. G-CSF, 5-AED and genistein were conceived and initially developed as countermeasures at AFRRI.
  6. Ex-Rad® and CBLB502 were initiated at private companies; AFRRI collaborated at early stages.
  7. AFRRI is involved in evaluating hematopoietic progenitor cells as a radiation countermeasure. This therapy could be given days after an incident, when there is a chance significant numbers of casualties could be evacuated to medical facilities.
  8. Other promising AFRRI agents are tocols (Vitamin E), and dual-use drugs that address both the ARS and late effects such as cancer.
  9. Policy questions revolve around planning for particular disaster scenarios, timing and routes of drug administration, priorities of various classes of agents, addressing specific ARS subsyndromes, and funding allocations.
  10. Radiation countermeasure candidates tested for efficacy at AFRRI are chosen based on extensive basic research, which increases chances of success.
  11. AFRRI has an ongoing in vivo efficacy screening program and is frequently approached by organizations for research collaboration and/or consultation regarding their promising countermeasure candidates.
  12. The screening program is supplemented by a robust mechanistic research program that provides supporting data for approval of existing drugs and identifies potential drug targets.
  13. AFRRI has a history of collaborating with private companies, providing supporting data for FDA applications, and attending meetings with the FDA and other government agencies as appropriate.
  14. AFRRI's mission covers research up to the IND stage. Advanced development of AFRRI products after IND approval is carried out by private companies or other government agencies.
  15. AFRRI participates in national and international panels that guide policy and funding for radiation countermeasures.
Background
  1. Ionizing radiation at certain doses damages the blood-forming system.
  2. This results in fewer blood cells and platelets in the circulatory system.
  3. White blood cells form part of the immune system: they attack infectious microorganisms. Platelets form clots and prevent uncontrolled bleeding.
  4. Therefore, susceptibility to infection and hemorrhage increase after exposure to radiation.
  5. These can cause death at a certain range of radiation doses (hematopoietic syndrome). Higher radiation doses cause death by damaging the gastrointestinal (GI) system or the central nervous system. There is some overlap: mortality due to the hematopoietic syndrome can be exacerbated by compromise of the GI barrier to bacteria.
  6. The concepts of sub-syndromes such as hematopoietic syndrome and GI syndrome now are being influenced by an appreciation of inter-tissue communication and synergies during ARS. Although the sub-syndrome terminology can be useful in some contexts, it is recognized that mortality is due to multi-organ dysfunction leading to multi-organ failure.
  7. Lower doses of radiation can increase the probability of cancer. (The probability of late effects such as cancer would also increase after higher radiation doses, in people who survived the acute effects.)
  8. Possible countermeasures to ionizing radiation can be broadly categorized into three groups.
    1. Drugs that prevent the initial radiation injury
      1. Free radical scavengers and antioxidants
      2. Hypoxia
      3. Enzymatic detoxification
      4. Oncogene targeting agents
    2. Drugs that repair the molecular damage caused by radiation
      1. Hydrogen transfer
      2. Enzymatic repair
    3. Drugs that stimulate proliferation of surviving stem and progenitor cells
      1. Immunomodulators
      2. Growth factors and cytokines
  9. Military personnel and emergency responders urgently need nontoxic countermeasures to ionizing radiation.
  10. The only approved countermeasures that can be used in the field are drugs that block the effects of several specific internalized radioisotopes. There are no approved drugs that can be used outside the clinic to ameliorate the effects of external ionizing radiation on the blood-forming or GI systems.
  11. The availability of medical facilities for radiation casualties after a nuclear detonation near a city will be problematic:
    1. Bell WC, Dallas CE. 2007. Intl J Health Geographics 6:5
    2. British Medical Association's Board of Science and Education. 1983, The Medical Effects of Nuclear War, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
    3. Holdstock D, Waterston L. 2000. Lancet 355:1544–1547
    4. Flynn DF, Goans RE. 2006. Surg Clin North Am 86:601–636
  12. In light of the logistical realities of likely nuclear disaster scenarios, much of our current focus is on drug candidates with extremely low toxicity and ease of administration, suitable for use outside the clinic without physician supervision.
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Previous work at AFRRI
AFRRI researchers have examined the efficacy, toxicity, and mechanisms of a number of radiation countermeasure candidates over the years. Three lines of investigation in particular have strongly influenced current practice:
  1. Weiss, Kumar, Landauer, and co-workers performed a series of studies on the toxicity of the previous "gold standard," amifostine. The effects of drug combinations on efficacy and toxicity were explored.
    1. Environmental Health Perspectives 105 Suppl 6: 1473–1478, 1997
    2. Advances in Space Research 12: 273–283, 1992
    3. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 39: 97–100, 1988
    4. Free Radicals Research Communications 3: 33–38, 1987
    5. Radiation Research 104: 182–190, 1985
  2. Neta and co-workers introduced the concept of using cytokines as radiation countermeasures. Experiments were done to determine the radioprotective roles of various cytokines in signaling cascades.
    1. Journal of Immunology 153: 1536–1543, 1994
    2. Journal of Immunology 153: 4230–4237, 1994
    3. Journal of Experimental Medicine 175: 689–694, 1992
    4. Journal of Experimental Medicine 173: 1177–1182, 1991
    5. Blood 76: 57–62, 1990
    6. Journal of Immunology 136: 2483–2485, 1986
    7. Journal of Immunology 140: 108–111, 1988
  3. MacVittie and co-workers expanded the study of cytokines to large animals. This work led directly to the current standard practice of administering G-CSF or GM-CSF off-label to radiation victims.
    1. Health Physics 89: 546–555, 2005
    2. Journal of Clinical Investigation 97: 2145–2151, 1996
    3. Blood 87: 4129–4135, 1996
    4. Hendry JH, Lord BI (eds): Radiation Toxicology: Bone Marrow and Leukaemia. London, Taylor and Francis, 1995, pp 141–194
    5. Blood 82: 3012-3018, 1993
    6. International Journal of Radiation Biology 57: 723–736, 1990
    7. Experimental Hematology 16: 344–348, 1988
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Recent accomplishments
  1. Dual-use countermeasures for acute and delayed effects
    1. 2011—Miller AC, Cohen S, Stewart M, Rivas R, Lison P. Radioprotection by the histone deacetylase inhibitor phenylbutyrate. Radiat Environ Biophys. 50:585–96. Epub 2011 Sep 3.
  2. Cellular therapies
    1. 2012—Singh VK, Christensen J, Fatanmi OO, Gille D, Ducey EJ, Wise SY, Karsunky H, Sedello AK. Myeloid progenitors: A radiation countermeasure that is effective when initiated days after irradiation. Radiat Res. 2012 May 4. [Epub ahead of print]
    2. 2011—Singh, VK, Brown, DS, Singh, PK, Seed, TM. Progenitor cells as a bridging therapy for radiation casualties. Defence Science Journal 61: 118–124.
  3. Advanced nutraceuticals as radioprotectants
    1. Tocols (Vitamin E components and analogs)
      1. 2012—Singh VK, Wise SY, Singh PK, Ducey EJ, Fatanmi OO, Seed TM. α-Tocopherol succinate and AMD3100-mobilized progenitors mitigate radiation-induced gastrointestinal injury in mice. Exp Hematol. 40:407–417. Epub 2012 Jan 10.
      2. 2012—Singh PK, Wise SY, Ducey EJ, Fatanmi OO, Elliott TB, Singh VK. α-Tocopherol succinate protects mice against radiation-induced gastrointestinal injury. Radiat Res. 177:133–45. Epub 2011 Oct 20
      3. 2011—Singh PK, Wise SY, Ducey EJ, Brown DS, Singh VK. Radioprotective efficacy of tocopherol succinate is mediated through granulocyte-colony stimulating factor. Cytokine. 56:411–21.
      4. 2011—Satyamitra MM, Kulkarni S, Ghosh SP, Mullaney CP, Condliffe D, Srinivasan V. Hematopoietic recovery and amelioration of radiation-induced lethality by the Vitamin E isoform δ-tocotrienol, Radiat Res. 175:736–45.
      5. 2011—Singh VK, Brown DS, Singh PK, Seed TM. Progenitor cells as a bridging therapy for radiation casualties. Defence Science Journal 61:118–124.
      6. 2011—Singh VK, Singh PK, Wise SY, Seed TM. Mobilized progenitor cells as a bridging therapy for radiation casualties: A brief review of tocopherol succinate-based approaches, Int Immunopharmacol. 11:842–47.
      7. 2011—Singh VK, Parekh VI, Brown DS, Kao TC, Mog SR. Tocopherol succinate: Modulation of antioxidant enzymes and oncogene expression, and hematopoietic recovery, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 79:571–8.
      8. 2010—Li XH, Fu D, Latif NH, Mullaney CP, Ney PH, Mog SR, Whitnall MH, Srinivasan V, Xiao M. Delta-tocotrienol protects mouse and human hematopoietic progenitors from gamma-irradiation through extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling, Haematologica 95:1996–2004.
      9. 2010—Kulkarni S, Ghosh SP, Hauer-Jensen M, Kumar KS. Hematological targets of radiation damage, Curr Drug Targets. 11:1375–85.
      10. 2010—Hauer-Jensen M, Kumar KS. Targets of potential radioprotective drugs, Curr Drug Targets. 11:1351.
      11. 2010—Kulkarni S, Ghosh SP, Satyamitra M, Mog S, Hieber K, Romanyukha L, Gambles K, Toles R, Kao T-C, Hauer-Jensen M, Kumar KS. Gamma-tocotrienol protects hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells in mice after total-body irradiation, Radiat Res. 17:738–47.
      12. 2010—Singh VK, Brown DS, Kao T-C. Alpha-tocopherol succinate protects mice from gamma-radiation by induction of granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, Int J Radiat Biol. 86:12–21.
      13. 2010—Singh VK, Brown DS, Kao T-C, Seed TM. Preclinical development of a bridging therapy for radiation casualties, Exp Hematol. 38:61–70.
      14. 2009—Ghosh SP, Kulkarni S, Hieber K, Toles R, Romanyukha L, Kao TC, Hauer-Jensen M, Kumar KS. Gamma-tocotrienol, a tocol antioxidant as a potent radioprotector, Int J Radiat Biol. 85:598–606.
      15. 2009—Singh VK, Brown DS, Kao T-C. Tocopherol succinate: A promising radiation countermeasure, Int Immunopharmacol. 9:1423–1430.
      16. 2006—Singh VK, Shafran RL, Jackson WE 3rd, Seed TM, Kumar KS. Induction of cytokines by radioprotective tocopherol analogs, Experimental and Molecular Pathology, 81:55–61.
      17. 2002—Kumar KS, Srinivasan V, Toles R, Jobe L, Seed TM. Nutritional approaches to radioprotection: Vitamin E, Military Medicine 167 Suppl. 1:57–59.
    2. Genistein
      1. 2009—Singh VK, Grace MB, Parekh VI, Whitnall MH, Landauer MR. Effects of genistein administration on cytokine induction in whole-body gamma irradiated mice, Int Immunopharmacol. 9:1401–1410.
      2. 2008—Day RM, Barshishat-Kupper M, Mog SR, McCart EA, Prasanna PGS, Davis TA, Landauer MR. Genistein protects against biomarkers of delayed lung sequelae in mice surviving high-dose total body irradiation, Radiation Research 49:361–372.
      3. 2008—Landauer MR. Radioprotection by the soy isoflavone genistein. In: R. Arora (ed), Herbal Radiomodulators: Applications in Medicine, Homeland Defense and Space, Wallingford, England: CABI Publishing, 163–173; ISBN: 978-1845933951.
      4. 2007—Grace MB, Blakely WF, Landauer MR. Genistein-induced alterations of radiation-responsive gene expression, Radiation Measurements 42:1152–1157.
      5. 2007—Davis TA, Clarke TK, Mog SR, Landauer MR. Subcutaneous administration of genistein prior to lethal irradiation supports multilineage, hematopoietic progenitor cell recovery and survival, International Journal of Radiation Biology 83:141–151.
      6. 2007 (Jan.)—The Food and Drug Administration granted Investigational New Drug (IND) status to genistein (BIO-300), a Humanetics radiation countermeasure developed at the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute with collaborators at the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
      7. 2005 and 2003—Entered into Cooperative Research and Development Agreements (CRADAs) with Humanetics Corporation to jointly develop oral agents that show promise in supporting and protecting the immune system against challenges from exposure to radiation.
      8. 2003—Landauer MR, Srinivasan V, Seed TM. Genistein treatment protects mice from ionizing radiation injury, Journal of Applied Toxicology, 23:379–385.
    3. Tetrahydrobiopterin
      1. 2010—Berbée M, Fu Q, Kumar KS, Hauer-Jensen M. Novel strategies to ameliorate radiation injury: A possible role for tetrahydrobiopterin, Curr Drug Targets. 11:1366–74.
  4. Cytokines and growth factors
    1. 2012—Singh VK, Fatanmi OO, Singh PK, Whitnall MH. Role of radiation-induced granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in recovery from whole body gamma-irradiation. Cytokine. 58:406–414. Epub 2012 Apr 8.
    2. 2011—Satyamitra M, Lombardini E, Graves J, Mullaney C, Ney P, Hunter J, Johnson K, Tamburini P, Wang Y, Springhorn JP, Srinivasan V. A TPO receptor agonist, ALXN4100TPO, mitigates radiation-induced lethality and stimulates hematopoiesis in CD2F1 mice, Radiat Res. 175(6):746–58.
    3. 2005—Singh VK, Srinivasan V, Seed TM, Jackson WE, Miner VE, Kumar KS. Radioprotection by N-palmitoylated nonapeptide of human interleukin-1beta, Peptides 26:413–418.
  5. Animal models of radiation injury
    1. 2012—Hulet SW, Moroni M, Whitnall MH and Mioduszewski RJ (2012) The minipig in chemical, biological, and radiological research. In: McAnulty PA, Dayan AD, Ganderup NC, Hastings KL (eds.) The Minipig in Biomedical Research. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL: 533–547.
    2. 2011—Moroni M, Lombardini E, Salber R, Kazemzedeh M, Nagy V, Olsen C, Whitnall MH. Hematological changes as prognostic indicators of survival: Similarities between Gottingen minipigs, humans, and other large animal models. PLoS One. 2011;6:e25210. Epub 2011 Sep 28.
    3. 2011—Moroni M, Coolbaugh TV, Lombardini ED, Mitchell JM, Moccia KD, Shelton LJ, Nagy V, Whitnall MH. Hematopoietic radiation syndrome in the Gottingen minipig, Radiat Res. 176:89-101.
    4. 2011—Moroni M, Coolbaugh TV, Mitchell JM, Lombardini E, Moccia KD, Shelton LJ, Nagy V, Whitnall MH. Vascular access port implantation and serial blood sampling in a Gottingen minipig (Sus scrofa domestica) model of acute radiation injury, J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 50:65–72.
    5. 2010—Moccia KD, Olsen CH, Mitchell JM, Landauer MR. Evaluation of hydration and nutritional gels as supportive care after total-body irradiation in mice (Mus musculus), J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 49:323–328.
    6. 2007—Parra NC, Ege CA, Ledney GD. Retrospective analyses of serum lipids and lipoproteins and severity of disease in 60Co-irradiated Sus scrofa domestica and Macaca mulatta, Comp Med 57:298–304.
    7. 2006—Ege CA, Parra NC, Johnson TE. Noninfectious complications due to vascular access ports (VAPs) in Yucatan minipigs (Sus scrofa domestica), J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 45:27–34.
  6. Mechanisms of radiation injury
    1. 2010—Cui L, Pierce D, Light KE, Melchert RB, Fu Q, Kumar KS, Hauer-Jensen M. Sublethal total body irradiation leads to early cerebellar damage and oxidative stres, Curr Neurovasc Res. 7:125–35.
    2. 2010—Garg S, Boerma M, Wang J, Fu Q, Loose DS, Kumar KS, Hauer-Jensen M. Influence of sublethal total-body irradiation on immune cell populations in the intestinal mucosa, Radiat Res. 173:469–478.
  7. Enzyme mimetics and inhibitors
    1. 2010—Davis TA, Landauer MR, Mog SR, Barshishat-Kupper M, Zins SR, Amare MF, Day RM. Timing of captopril administration determines radiation protection or radiation sensitization in a murine model of total body irradiation, Exp Hematol. 38:270–281.
    2. 2008—Srinivasan V, Doctrow S, Singh VK, Whitnall MH. Evaluation of EUK-189, a synthetic superoxide dismutase/catalase mimetic as a radiation countermeasure, Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 30:271–290.
  8. Hematopoietic microenvironment mechanisms
    1. 2009—Xiao M, Inal CE, Parekh VI, Li XH, Whitnall MH. Role of NF-kappaB in hematopoietic niche function of osteoblasts after radiation injury, Experimental Hematology 37:52–64.
Marrow treated with F-AED Marrow treated with a placebo
Bone marrow from a mouse treated with 5-AED (left), compared with marrow from a mouse treated with placebo (right). The many small, round, dark objects in the control section are nuclei in progenitors of red blood cells. Progenitors of granulocytes (mostly neutrophils) and monocytes possess lighter nuclei, often horseshoe-shaped. Four days after 5-AED treatment, there was a proliferation of granulocyte/ monocyte progenitors.
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  1. Ex-RAD®
    1. 2009—Ghosh SP, Perkins MW, Hieber K, Kulkarni S, Kao T-C, Reddy EP, Reddy MVR, Maniar M, Seed T, Kumar KS. Radiation protection by a new chemical entity, Ex-Rad™: Efficacy and mechanism, Radiation Research 171:173–179.
    2. 2008—Ex-RAD® obtained IND status with the FDA as an acute radiation syndrome countermeasure.
  2. Introduced a novel class of radiation countermeasures (5-androstene steroids), leading to the first IND for an ARS countermeasure
    1. 2008—Singh VK, Grace MB, Jacobsen KO, Chang CM, Parekh VI, Inal CE, Shafran RL, Whitnall AD, Kao TC, Jackson WE 3rd, Whitnall MH. Administration of 5-androstenediol to mice: Pharmacokinetics and cytokine gene expression, Exp Mol Pathol. 84:178–188.
    2. 2007—Xiao M, Inal CE, Parekh VI, Chang CM, Whitnall MH. 5-Androstenediol promotes survival of gamma-irradiated human hematopoietic progenitors through induction of nuclear factor-kappaB activation and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor expression, Mol Pharmacol. 72:370–379.
    3. 2007—Stickney DR, Dowding C, Authier S, Garsd A, Onizuka-Handa N, Reading C, Frincke JM. 5-androstenediol improves survival in clinically unsupported rhesus monkeys with radiation-induced myelosuppression, Int Immunopharmacol. 7: 500–505.
    4. 2006—Stickney DR, Dowding C, Garsd A, Ahlem C, Whitnall M, McKeon M, Reading C, Frincke J. 5-androstenediol stimulates multilineage hematopoiesis in rhesus monkeys with radiation-induced myelosuppression (Int Immunopharmacol. 6: 1706–1713.
    5. 2005—Singh VK, Shafran RL, Inal CE, Jackson WE 3rd, Whitnall MH. Effects of whole-body gamma irradiation and 5-androstenediol administration on serum G-CSF, Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 27: 521–534.
    6. 2005—U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Investigational New Drug (IND) status to 5-Androstenediol (NEUMUNE™), i.e., the FDA determined it was safe to proceed with Phase I clinical trials in the United States. A Phase I trial was already underway in the Netherlands.
    7. 2005—Whitnall MH, Villa V, Seed TM, Benjack J, Miner V, Lewbart ML, Dowding CA, Jackson WE 3rd. Molecular specificity of 5-androstenediol as a systemic radioprotectant in mice, Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 27: 15–32.
    8. 2002—Entered into Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) with Hollis-Eden Pharmaceuticals to jointly develop 5-androstenediol (referred to as HE2100 or NEUMUNE™) for eventual approval as a radiation countermeasure by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
    9. 2002—Whitnall MH, Wilhelmsen CL, McKinney L, Miner V, Seed TM, Jackson WE 3rd. Radioprotective efficacy and acute toxicity of 5-androstenediol after subcutaneous or oral administration in mice, Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 24: 595–626.
    10. 2001—Whitnall MH, Inal CE, Jackson WE 3rd, Miner VL, Villa V, Seed TM. In vivo radioprotection by 5-androstenediol: Stimulation of the innate immune system, Radiat Res. 156: 283–293.
    11. 2000—Whitnall MH, Elliott TB, Harding RA, Inal CE, Landauer MR, Wilhelmsen CL, McKinney L, Miner VL, Jackson WE 3rd, Loria RM, Ledney GD, Seed TM. Androstenediol stimulates myelopoiesis and enhances resistance to infection in gamma-irradiated mice, Int J Immunopharmacol 22: 1–14.
  3. Toll-like receptor agonists
    1. 2012—Shakhov AN, Singh VK, Bone F, Cheney A, Kononov Y, et al. Prevention and mitigation of acute radiation syndrome in mice by synthetic lipopeptide agonists of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2). PLoS ONE 7(3): e33044. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0033044
    2. 2011—Singh VK, Ducey EJ, Fatanmi OO, Singh PK, Brown DS, Purmal A, Shakhova VV, Gudkov AV, Feinstein E, Shakhov A CBLB613: A TLR 2/6 agonist, natural lipopeptide of Mycoplasma arginini, as a novel radiation countermeasure. Radiat Res. 2011 Dec 16. [Epub ahead of print]
    3. 2008—Protectan CBLB502 obtained IND status with the FDA as an acute radiation syndrome countermeasure.
    4. 2004—Entered into Cooperative Research and Development Agreement with Cleveland BioLabs to develop Protectans, drug candidates that protect normal tissues from acute stresses such as radiation.
  4. 2004—Jacobsen KO, Villa V, Miner VL, Whitnall MH. Effects of anesthesia and vehicle injection on circulating blood elements in C3H/HeN male mice, Contemporary Topics 43: 9–14.
  5. Radioprotective thiols
    1. 2004—Pamujula S, Graves RA, Freeman T, Srinivasan V, Bostanian LA, Kishore V, Mandal TK. Oral delivery of spray dried PLGA/amifostine nanoparticles, J Pharm Pharmacol. 56: 1119–1125.
    2. 2003—Kumar KS, Singh VK, Jackson W, Seed TM. Inhibition of LPS-induced nitric oxide production in RAW cells by radioprotective thiols, Exp Mol Pathol. 74: 68–7.
    3. 2002—Srinivasan V, Pendergrass JA Jr, Kumar KS, Landauer MR, Seed TM. Radioprotection, pharmacokinetic and behavioural studies in mouse implanted with biodegradable drug (amifostine) pellets, Int J Radiat Biol. 78: 535–543.
    4. 2002—Pendergrass JA Jr, Srinivasan V, Kumar KS, Jackson WE III, Seed TM. Determination of WR-1065 and WR-33278 by liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection, J AOAC Int. 85: 551–554.
  6. Effects of radiation quality on countermeasure efficacy
    1. 2012—Cary LH, Ngudiankama BF, Salber RE, Ledney GD, Whitnall MH. Efficacy of radiation countermeasures depends on radiation quality. Radiat Res. 2012 Apr 3. [Epub ahead of print]
  7. 2002—Miller AC, Ainsworth EJ, Lui L, Wang TJ, Seed TM. Development of chemopreventive strategies for radiation-induced cancer: Targeting radiation-induced genetic alterations, Mil Med. 167 Suppl. 1: 54–56.
  8. 2002—Kumar KS, Srinivasan V, Toles RE, Miner VL, Jackson WE, Seed TM. High-dose antibiotic therapy is superior to a 3-drug combination of prostanoids and lipid A derivative in protecting irradiated canines. J Radiat Res. 43:361–370.
  9. Guidance and reviews
    1. 2012—Singh VK, Ducey EJ, Brown DS, Whitnall MH. A review of radiation countermeasure work ongoing at the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute. Int J Radiat Biol. 88(4):296-310. Epub 2012 Feb 9.
    2. 2009—Xiao M, Whitnall MH. Pharmacological countermeasures for the acute radiation syndrome, Curr Mol Pharmacol. 2(1):122–133.
    3. 2008—Pellmar TC. Development of Radiation Countermeasures. In: Voeller JG (ed), Wiley Handbook of Science and Technology for Homeland Security, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-76130-3.
    4. 2008—Hauer-Jensen M, Kumar KS, Wang J. Intestinal Toxicity in Radiation and Combined Injury: Significance, Mechanisms, and Countermeasures. In: Larche RA (ed), Global Terrorism Issues and Developments, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., pp. 61–100. ISBN: 978-1600219306.
    5. 2007—Jarrett DG, Sedlak RG, Dickerson WE, Reeves GI. Medical treatment of radiation injuries—current U.S. status, Radiat Meas. 42(6–7):1063–1074. 
    6. 2007—Whitnall MH, Pellmar TC. New directions in development of pharmacological countermeasures for the acute radiation syndrome. In: Kasid UN, Notario V, Haimovitz-Friedman A, and Bar-Eli M (eds), Reviews in Cancer Biology & Therapeutics, Kerala, India: Transworld Research Network, 193–209; ISBN: 978-81-7895-285-7.
    7. 2006—Pellmar TC. Radiological/Nuclear Preparedness. Military Medical Technology, Online Edition, 10(3).
    8. 2005—Singh VK, Yadav VS. Role of cytokines and growth factors in radioprotection, Exp Mol Pathol. 78(2):156–169.
    9. 2005—Pellmar TC, Rockwell S, Radiological/Nuclear Threat Countermeasures Working Group. Priority list of research areas for radiological nuclear threat countermeasures, Radiat Res. 163:115–123.
    10. 2005—Goans RE, Waselenko JK. Medical management of radiological casualties, Health Phys. 89(5):505–512.
    11. 2005—Augustine AD, Gondre-Lewis T, McBride W, Miller L, Pellmar TC, Rockwell S. Animal models for radiation injury, protection and therapy, Radiat Res. 164:100–109.
    12. 2004—Coleman CN, Stone HB, Moulder JE, Pellmar TC. Medicine. Modulation of radiation injury, Science 304(5671):693–694.
    13. 2004—Stone HB, Moulder JE, Coleman CN, Ang KK, Anscher MS, Barcellos-Hoff MH, Dynan WS, Fike JR, Grdina DJ, Greenberger JS, Hauer-Jensen M, Hill RP, Kolesnick RN, Macvittie TJ, Marks C, McBride WH, Metting N, Pellmar T, Purucker M, Robbins ME, Schiestl RH, Seed TM, Tomaszewski JE, Travis EL, Wallner PE, Wolpert M, Zaharevitz D. Models for evaluating agents intended for the prophylaxis, mitigation and treatment of radiation injuries. Report of an NCI Workshop, December 3–4, 2003, Radiat Res. 162(6):711–728.
    14. 2004—Waselenko JK, MacVittie TJ, Blakely WF, Pesik N, Wiley AL, Dickerson WE, Tsu H, Confer DL, Coleman N, Seed T, Lowry P, Armitage JO, Dainiak N. Medical Management of the Acute Radiation Syndrome: Recommendations of the Strategic National Stockpile Radiation Working Group, Ann Intern Med. 140: 1037–1051.
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